Mat's Psychology Revision

NATURE AND NURTURE DEBATE NATURE Behaviour has roots in physiology e.g. genes, bodily functions - hormones and nervous system Stresses nature, reduces behaviour to a biological level- influence of genes and physical factors NURTURE Behaviour is largely driven by nurturing influences e.g. our environment (learning, socialisation, social norms etc) Those who stress nature reduce behaviour to environmental factors and claim we learn our behaviour from our environment INTERACTIONIST Both nature and nurture influence behaviour e.g. phenotypes Key genes may give individuals genetic predispositions to certain behaviours, however, this is moderated by environmental forces e.g. opportunities The Diathesis-Stress Approach is an example of interactionism  IMPORTANCE OF HEREDITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT  HEREDITY - The genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another  ENVIRONMENT - Any influence on human behavio...

CULTURE BIAS CULTURE BIAS : interpreting and judging behaviours/attitudes by standards inherent to one's own culture _________________________________________________________________________________ ETHNOCENTRISM : Tendency to use one ethnic group as a reference point for making judgements about other cultures behaviour Our Western culture is seen as "normal" and those which deviate from this are seen as "different" or even "primitive" and "unsophisticated" This may mean we ignore the views, or values of another society when interpreting research findings AN ETIC APPROACH  Where research is carried out across cultures in order to discover what elements of behaviour might be universal. E.g. Berry (1969) replicated Asch to see if conformity rates seen in the US would occur in Temne people of Sierra or Inuit Canada. Temne had high conformity rates but Inuit had low rates. The difference was due to the style of living (agricu...

GENDER  BIAS GENDER BIAS - Differential treatment and/or representation of males/females based on stereotypes and not real differences. ANDROCENTRISM Refers to theories which are centred around males. For example, if there was an all male sample and the research from it is applied to both genders PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES  Oedipus Complex Penis Envy PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Which used male samples) Milgram Asch Zimbardo ALPHA BIAS Attempt to exaggerate differences between men and women E.g. Freud's theory of moral development Arguing women have weaker morals due to an underdeveloped superego, they have less of a conscious E.g. Evolutionary theory about mate preferences statesmen seek youth and attractiveness in partner whereas women look for wealth and status BETA BIAS Attempt to downplay differences between genders and assuming they're the same. Such as androcentric sample research being applied to women E.g. The fight or flight respons...

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM Whether behaviour is influenced by forces beyond our control or we have personal control FREE WILL Assumes individuals have an active role in controlling their behaviour and aren't controlled by bio or external factors Humanistic approach suggests we have free will to control our own behaviour regardless of external and internal pressures and we're able to work towards self-actualisation DETERMINISM Behaviour is shaped by external or internal factors rather than free will INTERNAL FORCES  Biofactors e.g. genes, NT, brain damage Innate behavioural tendencies (as discussed by Freud) Faulty thinking patterns (as discussed by cognitive approach) EXTERNAL FORCES Learnt associations Stimulus-response links (behaviourism) Imitating role models (SLT) HARD DETERMINISM Suggests all behaviour has a cause and that it's possible to identify and describe these factors. This approach is scientific as it can establish universa...

IDIOGRAPHIC AND NOMOTHETIC APPROACH Whether psychology should focus on the individual or on people in general IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACH Attempts to explain the NATURE of individuals. We should be studied as unique entities who have had our own subjective experiences, motivations and values which have contributed to out own individual development. Methods under the Idiographic approach tends to produce qualitative data that tries to describe the richness and detail of human experience  e.g. Interviews, questionnaires and case studies  The humanistic and Freud section of the psychodynamic are examples of idiographic approach NOMOTHETIC APPROACH Aims to produce GENERAL LAWS of human behaviour which can be used as a benchmark for people to be measured, classified or compared. From these general laws, future behaviour can be predicted or even controlled. The Nomothetic Approach has been said by Radford and Kirby (1975) to have produced 3 general laws...

DISRUPTION TO BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS Jet lag and shift work cause the biological clock and internal physiological systems to be out of balance as our biorhythms are not equipped to cope with these large sudden changes so this has effects on our psychology and behaviour. JET LAG The effects we experience after crossing into a different time zone, our SCN takes several cycles to synchronise/entrain to a new environment.  WINTER et al - Calculated that it takes 1 day to adjust each hour of time change until then we experience symptoms such as fatigue concentration issues, reduced alertness and memory difficulties. EXPLAINING THE EFFECTS OF JETLAG When we're behind time our endogenous pacemakers will STILL release melatonin which makes us sleepy. Our new exogenous zeitgebers are out of sync with our endogenous cycle as i is still light which leads to tiredness and confusion. Takes time for our endogenous cycle to entrain to the new set of ...

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS Any change in physiological activity that repeats periodically CIRCADIAN - Lasts 24hrs like the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, hormones INFRADIAN - Lasts more than 24hrs like menstruation, hibernation and SAD ULTRADIAN - Lasts less than 24hrs like the stages of sleep, feeding  INFRADIAN RHYTHMS (24hrs+) There is a psychological disorder called seasonal affective disorder (SAD) in which sufferers experience depression in only the winter months.  Another example is the mensuration cycle which starts with The follicular phase is between 10-14 days where oestrogen and progesterone levels are low. Endometrium grows and prepares for pregnancy and the size of the eggs triple. Ovulatory phase where oestrogen levels increase and by day 14 the largest egg is released into fallopian tubes ULTRADIAN RHYTHMS (-24hrs) Feeding patterns of animals, and the patterns of human sleep which go through differen...

BRAIN PLASTICITY AND RECOVERY AFTER TRAUMA BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brains ability to change and adapt mentally and functionally as a result of experience and new learning. EXPERIENCE EXPECTANT PLASTICITY: Changes in the brain taking place in infancy We have 15,000 synaptic connections by 2-3yrs through synaptogenesis which is double what we have as an adult. Not all synaptic connections are used so some are deleted by cognitive pruning which strengthens the frequently used synapses. EXPERIENCE DEPENDENT PLASTICITY: When the brain continues to create new neural pathways and alter existing ones as a result of learning and life experiences. Through...  Synaptogenesis - New synapses form through life but mostly in infancy Neurogenesis - New neurones form. Occurs in infancy and adulthood. Synaptic Pruning - Synapse elimination which occurs in early childhood and the onset of puberty - occurs less in adulthood.  COMPUTER GAMING - KUHN et al  ...

SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH BACKGROUND In cases of severe epilepsy, surgery can be done to remove the CORPUS COLLUSUM which connects the left and right HEMISPHERES. CORPUS CALLOSUM is responsible for hemispheric communication through nerve fibres called commission fibres In split brain pts, hemispheric communication does not occur  PROCESSES INVOLVED IN SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH Split brain pts have a split visual field. Pts sat in front of a screen and were asked to gaze at a fixed point in the centre.  Visual stimuli projected to the right visual field (RVF) or left visual field (LVF) at a high speed, so there's no chance for them to move their head ~~> They're only able to process the image in the visual field it was placed in. FINDINGS OF SPERRY RESEARCH When words were projected to LVF (goes to the Right hemisphere) the words did not register as the left hemisphere is for language so words need to be presented to the RVF to be registered. EVAL...

LOCALISATION OF FUNCTION LOCALISATION: Theory that specific areas of the brain are associated w/ particular physical and physiological functions. M OTOR CORTEX contains the F rontal Lobe S OMATOSENSORY CORTEX contains the P arietal Lobe V ISUAL CORTEX contains the O ccipital Lobe A UDITORY CORTEX contains the T emporal Lobe Language systems are in the W ERNICKE'S AREA for Speech Comprehension and B ROCA'S AREA for Speech P roduction " M y F ather S ings P raise" " V iolets O nly A round T rees" "Women C an B ring P ower" HEMISPHERIC LATERALISATION: Dominance of one are of the brain for a particular physical and physiological function LASHLEY's Research - Localisation is incorrect, his research supports the idea of equipotentiality of the cortex. Simple functions are localised but complex functions are not MOTOR CORTEX Generates voluntary motor movements by sending messages to muscles via CNS In the frontal lobe, bo...

RESEARCHING THE BRAIN POST MORTEM  A person's body + brain is examined after death. Done to see where the damage had occurred in the brain and to see if behaviour done by individual prior to death can be explained. The brain can be sliced into thin sections and studied under a microscope to detect abnormalities. DETAILED EXAMINATION You can see anatomical aspects which can't be seen w/ non-invasive techniques, we can look at deeper regions of the brain RESEARCH SUPPORT - Harrison 2000 This method was important for our understanding of schiz. He suggested structural and neurochemical abnormalities linked to schiz were first identified using post-mortem  METHOD IS RETROSPECTIVE The problem with comparing function to before death is that there is little info about how the individual functioned before they died. Researchers cannot follow up on potential brain abnormalities and cog function BRAIN CHANGES after death Because of this, the fi...

FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE This response is generated from the ANS, in the sympathetic branch. It is a reflex response to help individuals react quicker. There are two types of stress response depending on the appraisal of the threat. Fight or Flight is activated for short-term stressors, different systems are activated for long-term or chronic stress. APPRAISAL OF STRESSOR The situation is appraised via sensory systems and stored memories. Hippocampus + Amygdala try to recognise emotional reactions to stimuli and access stored memories for potential danger  If the situation is deemed stressful, the hypothalamus is alerted. Hypothalamus controls the HPA axis (pituitary-adrenal system) for chronic stress and the SAM pathway for acute stress SAM PATHWAY Situation perceived as stressful due to emotions and memories Hypothalamus alerted and recognises stress as ACUTE SAM pathway activated (sympathetic branch of ANS) Adrenal Medulla stimulated (in adrenal gla...

FUNCTION OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTION:  To secrete hormones in the blood stream to regulate our bodily functions. Works w/ nervous system to regulate and coordinate physiological processes Provides a chemical system of communication via the blood stream. Uses a gland network, which secretes hormones (chemical messengers) throughout the body. HORMONES - Chemicals from glands which circulate bloodstream and are carried to target structures around the body. Each hormone will stimulate a part of the body, which leads to other hormones being released like adrenaline or oestrogen PITUITARY GLAND - The gland which exerts the most influence, this "Master Gland" can control all other endocrine glands. It's governed by the hypothalamus. PITUITARY HORMONES ACTH - Regulates the steroid hormone Cortisol (C is released from adrenal gland) OXYTOCIN - Facilitates in bonding between mother and child and stimulates uterus contraction during childbirth  VASOPRESSIN...

FUNCTION OF NEURONS PROCESS OF SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION DENDRITES pick up message (NT) and send an impulse (AP action potential) through the cell body, along axon to terminal buttons (TB) At the end of TB there are synaptic vesicles which contain and store the NT, NT converts impulse into a message which is transferred to the next neurone As the impulse (AP) travels to the end of the neurone at the TB it reaches the synaptic vesicle which releases the NT and crosses the synaptic gap between the pre and postsynaptic neurone NT diffuses across synaptic gap, binds to specialised receptors on the surface of next cell dendrites which recognise it and match that cell Once the next cell is activated the receptor molecules either have an inhibitory effect (weakens impulses by decreasing AP) or an excitation effect (strengthens impulses by increasing AP) Synaptic Transmission is completed (done in a fraction of a second) by the process of reuptake, where leftover NTs are taken bac...

THE COGNITIVE APPROACH ASSUMPTION - All behaviour is driven by thought processes which are known as "cognitive primacy" . Focuses on how our mind deals with info and our abilities to use that info. However, all these processes are internal and cannot be observed, researchers can only make inferences about cognitive behaviour. INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH We learn and process info in a Linear Systematic way INPUT ~~> PROCESS ~~> OUTPUT Seen is the multi-store model COMPUTER ANALOGY Sees the human mind as similar to a computer HARDWARE - Skull SOFTWARE - Like cognitive processes such as memory, software can differ between people but hardware is the same Both have a CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT and uses the concept of coding and we have different stores to hold info ROLE OF SCHEMA A mental/cognitive structure which contains knowledge about an object, person, activity or role based on experience. These beliefs/expectations help us make sen...

THE LEARNING APPROACH ASSUMPTIONS - Focused on environmental determinism according to Watson 1913 we are born as "tabula rasa" (blank slate) - our behaviours, personalities and abilities are learnt via the environment. The approach is VERY scientific and only focuses on observable external factors. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CC) "Learning via Association" Based on Pavlov's dog research, manipulating the reflex action of salivation (UCS) STAGE 1 FOOD ( UCS )  = SALIVATION ( UCR ) STAGE 2 - Contingency Pairing  BELL ( NS )   +  FOOD ( UCS ) = SALIVATION ( UCR ) STAGE 3 BELL ( CS )   =   SALIVATION ( CR ) In stage 1 the dog in the presence of food the unconditioned stimulus will naturally salivate in the presence of it which is a unconditioned response. After the neutral stimulus of the bell has been paired enough with the unconditioned stimulus of food the dog learns to associate the sound of the bell with food.  Eventually, th...

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH ASSUMPTION- Behaviour is motivated by unconscious motives + events that occurred in childhood. THE ROLE OF THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND CONSCIOUS - Thoughts the mind is aware of (perceptions + everyday thoughts) TOP PRECONSCIOUS - Just beneath the surface, (memories + stored knowledge) which can be accessed UNCONSCIOUS - Info which is hard to retrieve, the biggest part of our mind (fears, traumatic experiences, instincts). The unconscious directs and motivates behaviour without conscious awareness. It also protects us from the traumatic material which could damage the psyche if it was recalled into the conscious. THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY ID - Unconscious mind (motivated by the pleasure principle) has the immediate desire for satisfaction. Present from birth, e.g. 'a baby wanting milk' EGO - Rational mind (motivated by the reality principle), works to balance the demands of the ID and anxieties of the Superego...

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH ASSUMPTION is that all behaviour is driven by physiological factors like genetics, biological structures and neurochemistry. Focuses on NATURE shaping our behaviour. EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOUR (suggested by Charles Darwin) Evolution - Gradual change within a species over time in response to environmental pressures Natural Selection - Inherited characteristics which enhance survival, passed on to the next generation Adaption - A behaviour or trait which increases successes or survival and reproduction Survival of the Fittest - Only those best suited to the environment will survive and reproduce Sexual Selection - When individuals possess features that make them attractive to the opposite sex and helps them compete with the same sex for mates, increases reproductive success Phobias such as arachnophobia can be seen to be adaptive as it increases survival. Living as a social species offers advantages, survival would decrease ...

STRUCTURE OF NEURONS STRUCTURE CELL BODY which contains a nucleus which has all the genetic material of cell Have DENDRITES which are branch-like structures which carry impulses from other neurones towards the cell body AXON carries impulse AWAY from cell body down the neurone AXON covered in a protective layer MYELIN SHEATH which speeds up electrical impulses MYELIN SHEATH is segmented by gaps called NODES OF RANVIER, which speed up transmissions of impulses as it forces it to jump across the gaps At the end of the AXON, there are TERMINAL BUTTONS which communicate with the next neurone via neurotransmitters Sensory Neurone Unipolar Carries info from PNS to CNS about external and internal environment using sensory receptors  Long dendrites and short axons Relay Neurone Multipolar as it can send AND receive info Most common type in CNS allows sensory and motor neurones to communicate and connect Short dendrites and short axons Mo...